Paul Whiteman, general secretary at the National Association of Head Teachers, says fines are a “crude tool, and do not address more complex underlying causes of absence”.

To improve attendance, he says there needs to be more support for children with special educational needs, as well as more investment in community services, mental health support and social care.

School leaders are also in a difficult position, he says, because there are no national guidelines on what the “exceptional circumstances” are in which schools can give pupils time off.

Education Secretary Bridget Phillipson said “we need a national effort to tackle the epidemic of school absence”, adding fines have a “vital place in our system, so everyone is held accountable” for ensuring children are in school.

“When children miss school unnecessarily, all children suffer, as teachers’ attention is diverted to helping them catch back up, and we will not apologise for ensuring every child is in school accessing high and rising standards so they can achieve and thrive,” she said.